Repetition and practice. Developing mental training with young violinists: a collaboration.

Mental training has been used successfully by professional musicians and athletes, yet rarely applied in pedagogical processes. As research in neuroscience can now explain how it connects to the processes of learning, its application and adaptation in pedagogy can now be explored. The aim of this mixed methods study was to investigate concepts of repetition and practice with mental training, and discuss adaptations for young violinists, to include attention, awareness, and creative musicality. Three exercises were developed with nine students (average age 8). The first involved creation of imagery, followed by physical practice; the second alternated mental imagery with physical practice; the third involved concurrent use of physical practice and mental imagery. Results of the first exercise indicate heightened awareness of technical skill; self-discovery of bow control, speed and distribution, tone production improvements and an ability to sustain longer notes post-mental training (Z = -2.666, p = 0.008 and Z = -2.670, p = 0.008). Observations from the second and third exercises include student experimentation with concepts of musical interpretation, an eagerness to repeat repertoire (≥ 5 times) and increased self-awareness of technical and musical accomplishments. The research suggests that mental training can be adapted for younger learners, that it encourages collaboration in the pedagogical process, and develops student self-awareness of the cognitive and physical processes of violin playing.

Does Motor Imagery Training Improve Service Performance in Tennis Players? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.

Motor imagery training is a common mental strategy used by tennis players and coaches to improve learning and performance; however, the effect of motor imagery training on service performance in tennis players is questionable. This review aims to consolidate existing research regarding the effects of motor imagery training on the service performance of tennis players. A systematic search was conducted following the PRISMA guidelines, using PubMed, Web of Science, SCOPUS, and SPORTDiscus to identify articles published until December 2023. Eligible studies comprised controlled trials that investigated the impact of motor imagery on service performance outcomes in tennis players. The methodological quality of individual studies was assessed using the Cochrane RoB-2 and ROBINS-I tools. GRADE was applied to assess the certainty of the evidence. Nine trials including 548 participants met the inclusion criteria. The results indicated that motor imagery training improved service accuracy and technique but did not affect service speed or return accuracy in tennis players. In conclusion, the certainty of the evidence that motor imagery training may be effective in improving service accuracy and technique in tennis players is low to very low. However, more experimental work is needed to obtain stronger conclusions.

Psychological readiness of football players for the match and its connection with self-esteem and competitive anxiety.

For athletes, failure in a match is psychologically difficult. Since the movement abilities of athletes are often comparable, it is assumed that one of the key elements of victory is also their psychological readiness. Many experts recommend rigorously examining all factors affecting the performance of football players, especially in matches. The aim of our study is to determine whether a football player's coping with adversity, coachability, motivation to succeed, goal setting, peaking under pressure, or fear of failure are significantly predicted by their self-esteem or a specific aspect of competitive anxiety, which can be crucial for the direction of psychological preparation in collective sports. The research sample consisted of 107 male football players in the age range of 18-29 years registered with the Slovak Football Association, who actively participated in the team's matches. Football players filled out a booklet of psychological tests, including the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory, the Sport Anxiety Scale, and the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. The results of the regression analysis showed that the self-esteem of football players is a significant predictor of achievement motivation and their ability to listen to the coach's instructions. Along with the somatic component of anxiety, it also predicts goal-setting. Cognitive anxiety of football players, characterized by negative thoughts, turned out to be a significant predictor of coping with adversity during a football match and their peaking under pressure, and together with concentration disruption, it also predicts the ability of football players to free themselves from worries about what the audience thinks about their sporting performance in the match.

Psychological Determinants in Biathlon Performance: A U23 National Team Case Study.

BACKGROUND: The present investigation examined what psychological factors athletes perceived to impact their competition performance and what training strategies and focus the athletes considered to be the most important. METHODS: We recruited six participants (three females, three males) from the Norwegian Biathlon Federation's national U23 and junior teams, and all participated. We used semi-structured interviews to gather the data and used thematic analyses to examine our findings. RESULTS: The findings centered around the intricate relationship between psychological factors, particularly self-efficacy, anxiety, attention control, and performance, in biathlon shooting. CONCLUSIONS: Implementing a holistic approach to biathlon training entails harmonizing physical and psychological elements with personalized psychological training regimens.

Mental training in general surgery: a qualitative review of Australian trainee perceptions.

BACKGROUND: Mental training is the cognitive process and pedagogical technique of 'viewing' and 'feeling' a task without physically performing it. Its application is well-established within aviation, elite sports and the arts. While surgical trainees often mentally rehearse prior to operating, this technique is yet to be established for educational and skill acquisition purposes. The aim of this study was to investigate trainee awareness of mental training, the use of mental rehearsal, and explore perceived benefits and barriers to its implementation. METHODS: An exploratory qualitative study design was employed, with semi-structured interviews of general surgical trainees across Australia. Interviews were transcribed and thematic analysis undertaken to identify common themes. RESULTS: A total of 10 General Surgery trainees were interviewed encompassing each Australian state and territory. A consistent finding was that all teaching of operative skills occurs in the clinical environment, without the adjunct of structured practical or cognitive simulation. All trainees reported mentally rehearsing procedures in some capacity as part of personal preparation, and were supportive of implementing formal mental training for surgical skill development. Themes included standardization of training, enhancing training during times of reduced clinical exposure, minimizing anxiety, and improving communication. Implementation was deemed to be most effective through a bank of online mental training resources. CONCLUSION: Mental training was supported by General Surgical trainees, with perceived potential benefits in multiple domains. To mitigate the main perceived barrier of time constraints, an online method of delivery was felt to be optimal.

The Effects of EEG Biofeedback Training on Visual Reaction Time in Judo Athletes.

The aim of the study was to expand the current knowledge on the effects of EEG biofeedback training on the reaction time of judo athletes, as well as to develop an optimal EEG training protocol in terms of the number of sessions and their duration that would significantly improve the reaction time of athletes. The study included 24 male athletes from the national team of the Polish Judo Association. The selected group was randomly divided into two subgroups: experimental and control. The study was conducted in four cycles varying in terms of frequency and duration of neurofeedback (NFB) sessions, both in the control and experimental groups. In the experimental group, each training cycle consisted of 15 sessions, followed by a four-week break. The effects of NFB training on the visual reaction time of judo athletes were evaluated using computerized simple and complex reaction time tests along with selected trials of the Vienna Test System (VTS). Following NFB training according to the theta/beta1 protocol, while maintaining appropriate duration and frequency of individual training sessions, statistically significant improvements in reaction times to visual stimuli of athletes, both in simple and complex tasks, were observed in the experimental group. No such changes were found in the control group. The greatest improvement in reaction times was observed in complex tasks, indicating the high effectiveness of EEG biofeedback training in enhancing this ability.

Influence of Mental Training of Attentional Control on Autonomic Arousal Within the Framework of the Temporal Preparation of a Force Task.

While temporal preparation has frequently been examined through the manipulation of foreperiods, the role of force level during temporal preparation remains underexplored. In our study, we propose to manipulate mental training of attentional control in order to shed light on the role of the force level and autonomic nervous system in the temporal preparation of an action. Forty subjects, divided into mental training group (n = 20) and without mental training group (n = 20), participated in this study. The influence of the attentional control and force levels on the autonomic nervous system were measured using the skin conductance response and the heart rate variability; the accuracy of the motor responses was measured using a method derived from machine learning. Behaviorally, only the mental training group reinforced its motor and attentional control. When using short foreperiod durations and high force level, motor and attentional control decreased, consistent with the dominant sympathetic system. This resulted in an increased anticipation rate of responses with a higher reaction time compared to the long foreperiods duration and low force level, in which the reaction time significantly decreased, with enhancement of the expected force level, showing consistency with the dominant parasympathetic system. Interestingly, results revealed a predictive relationship between the sympathovagal balance and motor and attentional control during the long foreperiods and low force level. Finally, results demonstrate that attentional mental training leads to the reinforcement of interactions between the autonomic nervous system and attentional processes which are involved in the temporal preparation of a force task.

Differential reduction of psychological distress by three different types of meditation-based mental training programs: A randomized clinical trial

Objective: There is little knowledge about which types of meditation-based training are effective for alleviating which facets of psychological distress. We investigated shared and specific effects of three meditation-based training programs on distress. Method: 332 healthy adults were assigned to a retest control cohort or to one of three 3-month mental training cohorts including: the cultivation of mindfulness-based attention (Presence), socio-affective skills such as compassion (Affect), or metacognitive skills such as perspective taking (Perspective). A battery of 68 self-reported distress measures was collected. Data were analyzed using machine learning methods, identifying the cohort allocation based on distress change scores. Results: Supporting only specific and not shared alleviation effects, the classifiers identified significantly above chance Presence from Affect and Affect from Perspective, but they did not identify the training cohorts from the retest cohorts. Conclusions: The classifiers revealed stable module-associated distress change profiles, which could help to precisely choose meditation-based interventions to target individuals’ specific distress patterns. (AU)

Impact of a mental training program for pediatric cancer patients after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation or high-dose chemotherapy - Results of a randomized controlled trial.

OBJECTIVES: Hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) or intensive chemotherapy for the treatment of malignant diseases is a highly distressing experience. The affected person's resilience is crucial to coping with this challenging experience. Experience with resilience-enhancing interventions in children and young adults during cancer therapy is scarce. The major objective of this work was developing and evaluating an effective psycho-oncological mental training that complements the standard psychosocial care. METHODS: In this prospective, randomized single-center study, a total of 30 patients (12 to 22 years of age) who underwent HSCT or high-dose chemotherapy received either the standard psychosocial care (control group [CG]) or additionally underwent a novel and specifically developed resilience-enhancing 14-session mental training (therapy group [TG]). The patients were observed over an 8-month period and were screened for distress, thyroid, and immune function parameters, as well as generalized anxiety, affect, and sports orientation. RESULTS: Patients of the TG showed significantly greater improvements in all assessed mental aspects, including anxiety, affect, competitiveness, win orientation, goal orientation, self-optimization, self-blocking, and loss of focus, as well as cortisol levels within 8 months, as opposed to patients of the CG (effect size range ξ: 0.74-1.00). SIGNIFICANCE OF RESULTS: Patients who underwent the mental training displayed less anxiety, better affect, and improved mental performance with less self-blocking. This resulted in improved goal orientation, competitiveness, self-optimization, and focus when compared to the CG patients. However, larger prospective trials are necessary to substantiate these findings.

Influence of motor imagery training on hip abductor muscle strength and bilateral transfer effect.

Motor imagery training could be an important treatment of reduced muscle function in patients and injured athletes. In this study, we investigated the efficacy of imagery training on maximal force production in a larger muscle group (hip abductors) and potential bilateral transfer effects. Healthy participants (n = 77) took part in two experimental studies using two imagery protocols (∼30 min/day, 5 days/week for 2 weeks) compared either with no practice (study 1), or with isometric exercise training (study 2). Maximal hip abduction isometric torque, electromyography amplitudes (trained and untrained limbs), handgrip strength, right shoulder abduction (strength and electromyography), and imagery capability were measured before and after the intervention. Post intervention, motor imagery groups of both studies exhibited significant increase in hip abductors strength (∼8%, trained side) and improved imagery capability. Further results showed that imagery training induced bilateral transfer effects on muscle strength and electromyography amplitude of hip abductors. Motor imagery training was effective in creating functional improvements in limb muscles of trained and untrained sides.

Reducing alexithymia and increasing interoceptive awareness: A randomized controlled trial comparing mindfulness with dyadic socio-emotional app-based practice.

BACKGROUND: Emotion processing deficits of alexithymia are a transdiagnostic risk factor. While such deficits are malleable, the differential efficacy of brief scalable digital mental trainings remains understudied. METHODS: This randomized controlled trial probed the efficacy of mindfulness-based (MB) and partner-based socio-emotional Affect Dyad (SE) practice, both supported by weekly coaching sessions, in reducing alexithymia in 285 adult participants. We investigated the predictive role of interoceptive awareness assessed a) before and after daily practice, b) in ecological momentary assessment (EMA) before and after the intervention, and c) weekly during the 10-week intervention. RESULTS: Both interventions reduced emotion processing difficulties on the Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). Similarly, both interventions improved interoceptive awareness immediately after daily practice and after the intervention period, yet SE outperformed MB training in EMA assessments. Further, only Dyad practice led to increases in body listening and self-regulatory aspects of the Multidimensional Assessment of Interoceptive Awareness (MAIA) over time, with the latter explaining a decrease in alexithymia. LIMITATIONS: Given the subclinical study sample, findings are limited in their generalizability to clinical samples. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that app-based socio-emotional and mindfulness-based practices, supported by online coaching sessions, are effective in reducing emotion processing deficits. Dyad training showed advantages on some measures of body awareness, which predicted observed changes in alexithymia. This highlights the potential of using app-based dyadic approaches in the development of emotion awareness and regulation.

Boosting Empathy and Compassion Through Mindfulness-Based and Socioemotional Dyadic Practice: Randomized Controlled Trial With App-Delivered Trainings.

BACKGROUND: Contemplative trainings have been found to effectively improve social skills such as empathy and compassion. However, there is a lack of research on the efficacy of app-delivered mindfulness-based and dyadic practices in boosting socioaffective capacity. OBJECTIVE: The first aim of this study was to compare a novel app-delivered, partner-based socioemotional intervention (Affect Dyad) with mindfulness-based training to foster empathy and compassion for the self or others. The second aim of this study was to investigate the underlying mechanisms of these effects. METHODS: This randomized controlled trial included socioemotional and mindfulness-based interventions and a waitlist control group, which received socioemotional training after the postintervention assessment. We used linear mixed-effects models to test intervention effects on self-report measures and an ecologically valid computer task of empathy, compassion for the self and others, and theory of mind. Moderated mediation models were used to investigate whether changes in acceptance, empathic distress, empathic listening, interoceptive awareness, and mindfulness served as underlying psychological processes of intervention effects. RESULTS: In 218 participants (mean age 44.12, SD 11.71 years; 160/218, 73.4% female), we found all interventions to have positive effects on composite scores for compassion toward the self (ßsocioemotional=.44, P<.001; ßwaitlist socioemotional=.30, P=.002; ßmindfulness-based=.35, P<.001) and others (ßsocioemotional=.24, P=.003; ßwaitlist socioemotional=.35, P<.001; ßmindfulness-based=.29, P<.001). Compassion measured with the computer task did not change significantly but showed a trend toward increase only in socioemotional dyadic practice (ßsocioemotional=.08, P=.08; ßwaitlist socioemotional=.11, P=.06). Similarly, on the empathic concern subscale of the Interpersonal Reactivity Index, a nonsignificant trend toward increase was found in the socioemotional intervention group (ßsocioemotional=.17; P=.08). Empathy significantly increased in both socioemotional groups (ßsocioemotional=.16, P=.03; ßwaitlist socioemotional=.35, P<.001) and the mindfulness-based group (ßmindfulness-based=.15; P=.04). The measures of theory of mind did not change over time. In the mindfulness-based group, the increase in self-compassion was mediated by a decrease in empathic distress (indirect effect abmindfulness-based=0.07, 95% CI 0.02-0.14). In the socioemotional group, an increase in self-compassion could be predicted by an increase in acceptance (ßsocioemotional=6.63, 95% CI 0.52-12.38). CONCLUSIONS: Using a multimethod approach, this study shows that app-delivered socioemotional and mindfulness-based trainings are effective in fostering compassion for the self and others in self-report. Both low-dose trainings could boost behavioral empathy markers; however, the effects on behavioral and dispositional markers of compassion only trended after dyadic practice, yet these effects did not reach statistical significance. Training-related increases in self-compassion rely on differential psychological processes, that is, on improved empathic distress regulation through mindfulness-based training and the activation of a human care- and acceptance-based system through socioemotional dyadic training. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04889508; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04889508.

Three weeks of mental training changes physiological outcomes during a time trial to exhaustion.

Mental training (MT) can increase endurance performance. The purpose of this study was to examine the minimum dose of mental training needed to increase performance and elucidate the physiological mechanisms underlying this improvement. In a randomized between groups pre-test-post-test design, 33 participants visited the lab on 6 separate days. A VO2peak with ventilatory threshold (VT) was performed on day 1. The subsequent visits consisted of time trials to exhaustion (TTE) performed at 10% above VT. Between visit 3 and 6, the MT group (n = 16) watched a video for 10-15 min each day for 3 weeks, while the control group (CON; n = 17) did no mental training. Heart rate (HR), rate of perceived exertion (RPE), VAS scores for pain and fatigue, electromyography, and metabolic and neuromuscular data were collected and recorded during the time trials. The GRIT-S and CD-RISC 10 surveys were completed before study days 3 and 6. TTE increased significantly for MT beginning after 2 weeks (10.0 ± 13.1%) with no further change after 3 weeks (10.4 ± 13.2). TTE also significantly decreased during the last TTE for CON (-10.3 ± 12.7). VO2, ventilation, and frequency of breathing were significantly reduced in the latter stages of the TTE for MT. EMG was also significantly decreased for MT as compared for CON throughout the trial. Three weeks of mental training improves performance by reducing EMG, decreasing activation of the muscle and reducing metabolic factors during the latter stages of exercise.

Differential reduction of psychological distress by three different types of meditation-based mental training programs: A randomized clinical trial.

Objective: There is little knowledge about which types of meditation-based training are effective for alleviating which facets of psychological distress. We investigated shared and specific effects of three meditation-based training programs on distress. Method: 332 healthy adults were assigned to a retest control cohort or to one of three 3-month mental training cohorts including: the cultivation of mindfulness-based attention (Presence), socio-affective skills such as compassion (Affect), or metacognitive skills such as perspective taking (Perspective). A battery of 68 self-reported distress measures was collected. Data were analyzed using machine learning methods, identifying the cohort allocation based on distress change scores. Results: Supporting only specific and not shared alleviation effects, the classifiers identified significantly above chance Presence from Affect and Affect from Perspective, but they did not identify the training cohorts from the retest cohorts. Conclusions: The classifiers revealed stable module-associated distress change profiles, which could help to precisely choose meditation-based interventions to target individuals' specific distress patterns.

Impact of physical and mental training on dental students' fine motor skills.

BACKGROUND: Mental training can be beneficial when learning new motor skills. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether a combination of physical and mental training can replace physical training. METHODS: Sixty dental students were randomly divided into six groups, which were assigned different regimens of physical and mental training: A. 75% mental 25% physical; B. 50% mental 50% physical; C. 75% physical 25% mental; D. 100% mental; E. 100% physical; F. control, no practice. The physical training comprised eight different tasks performed on the Purdue Pegboard: four tasks with direct vision (PD) and four tasks with indirect vision (PIND). The mental training involved listening to a recording explaining the actions to be performed. The tests were performed twice: T0, before training; and T1, at 24 h after training. The non-parametric Mann-Whitney test was used to detect differences between the groups. Changes between T0 and T1 within a group were analysed by Wilcoxon signed-rank test. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between the groups at T0. At T1, members of Groups A, B, C, and E had improved at five to eight tasks, while Groups D and F had improved at two tasks. Notably, Group D improved in the assembly tasks. Ranking the extent of improvement at T1, indicated that For PD Groups B, E > F, D while for PIND B, C, E > A, F and E > D. CONCLUSION: Substituting some physical training by mental training can provide similar improvements in fine motor skills, although the optimal combination remains to be determined. Mental training may be more effective for cognitive tasks.

Mental training in dentistry: A scoping review.

INTRODUCTION: Clinical motor skills are essential to train dental students. There is evidence that imagery serves to acquire and improve motor skills, but there is scarce information on its application in dental education. In order to broadly map the available evidence and to detect knowledge gaps in the mental training used to develop motor skills in dentistry, a scoping review was conducted. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A structured search was conducted to identify relevant references from the Web of Science, Scopus and MEDLINE/PubMed databases for studies addressing mental training methods applied to develop motor skills in dentistry. RESULTS: A total of 758 articles were screened and four were selected, all of which were randomized clinical trials. Three studies investigated the effectiveness of visual imagery, and one investigated kinesthetic imagery. The research theme identified was motor skill acquisition. CONCLUSION: The reviewed studies indicate the usefulness of mental training for skill acquisition in dentistry. To improve the generalizability of the results, further research with standardized mental training on motor skills in dentistry is needed.

Assessing Decentering Capacity in Athletes: A Moderated Mediation Model.

Decentering has received more attention in sports literature as a self-regulating skill capable of significantly limiting episodes of mental block in competitive situations. This contribution depicts a comparative study conducted with 375 Italian national and international athletes. The objective was to evaluate athletes' decentralization skills across different sports and levels of competition and test a mediation model of decentering in sports with coping and emotional balance variables. Pearson bivariate correlations, linear hierarchical regression, and simple mediation analysis were conducted for all main measures (The Decentering Sport Scale, The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire, and The Coping Orientations to Problems Experienced). Outputs reported significant associations with emotional regulation and coping styles. Mediation analysis confirmed the central mediating role of decentering capacity which has indirect effects on both the coping ability of problem solving (z-value = 2.986; p = 0.003) and cognitive reappraisal (z-value = 2.779; p = 0.005). Decentering acts as a mediator between an athlete's positive attitude, problem-orientation ability, and management of emotions in competition through cognitive reappraisal. The study highlights the significance of evaluating and enhancing decentralization skills in order to establish specific action mechanisms, which are crucial for both peak performance and the athlete's health.

Psychological Skills Training for Athletes in Sports: Web of Science Bibliometric Analysis.

Psychological Skill Training (PST) for optimal performance in sports has received extensive attention from athletes, coaches, and experts, and numerous studies have been conducted, but despite this interest, it has not been the subject of any bibliographic analysis. The analysis covered 405 articles and reviews that were located in the Thomson Reuters Web of Science (Core CollectionTM) between 1992 and 2021. These papers were published by 1048 authors from 543 different universities across 54 countries in 107 different journals. The fundamental bibliometric calculations and co-word networks were completed. As a result, the following thematic elements were grouped into four clusters: (1) PST for stress, mental toughness, and coping, (2) PST for anxiety, motivation, self-confidence, and self-efficacy, (3) PST for flow and mindfulness, and (4) PST for emotions. From the results of this study, it was confirmed that the topic of PST is converging toward the best performance, with various approaches, such as stress management, anxiety control, and coping as techniques for PST. Furthermore, mindfulness and positive psychology studies emphasize athletes' quality of life, so coaches and experts should pay more attention to improving athletes' quality of life in future research.

Psychological Intervention Based on Mental Relaxation to Manage Stress in Female Junior Elite Soccer Team: Improvement in Cardiac Autonomic Control, Perception of Stress and Overall Health.

Chronic stress may represent one of the most important factors that negatively affects the health and performance of athletes. Finding a way to introduce psychological strategies to manage stress in everyday training routines is challenging, particularly in junior teams. We also must consider that a stress management intervention should be regarded as "efficacious" only if its application results in improvement of the complex underlying pathogenetic substratum, which considers mechanistically interrelated factors, such as immunological, endocrine and autonomic controls further to psychological functioning and behavior. In this study, we investigated the feasibility of implementing, in a standard training routine of the junior team of the Italian major soccer league, a stress management program based on mental relaxation training (MRT). We evaluated its effects on stress perception and cardiac autonomic regulation as assessed by means of ANSI, a single composite percentile-ranked proxy of autonomic balance, which is free of gender and age bias, economical, and simple to apply in a clinical setting. We observed that the simple employed MRT intervention was feasible in a female junior soccer team and was associated with a reduced perception of stress, an improved perception of overall health, and a betterment of cardiac autonomic control. This data may corroborate the scientific literature that indicates psychological intervention based on MRT as an efficacious strategy to improve performance, managing negative stress effects on cardiac autonomic control.

Mental Fitness: Psychological Warfare from Battlefield to Playground.

India and its people are commonly known for their unique culture and tradition. Cricket and mythology are much interwoven into the lives of people as both are almost inseparable part of their life and culture. Although the two fields are completely different from each other, there is a deep-rooted connection between them when it comes to their popularity in India. Most of the people of India have spent their childhood either by listening to the stories of mythology or watching cricket, because the two interesting activities that consciously impact the mind and gain the attention so easily. The psychological aspects of both game and stories literally leave a strong impact in human mind. Hence, this paper attempts to integrate the psychological aspects of the game and mythology by analyzing the existing mental health problems of Indian cricketers with reference to the mythological stories of Indian heroes. It further aims to provide the proposed model for mental fitness named SPORTS as a guide to mental training for contemporary cricketers to manage their emotions and control their mind for optimal performance.